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INCREASE IN ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
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Table of contents
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
CHAPTER TWO 3
2.1 Origin of Antimicrobial Resistance 3
2.2 Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Resistance 5
2.2.1 Genetic Jugglery 8
2.2.2 Intrinsic Resistance 9
2.2.3 The Resistome 11
2.2.4 The Subsistome 12
2.2.5 Resistance Due to Anthropogenic Activities 12
2.3 Genetics of resistance 14
2.3.1 Resistance Gene Transmission 15
2.3.2 Integrons 17
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Reason for the Increase in Antimicrobial Resistance 19
3.1.1 Drug dispensers and drug quality 21
3.1.2 Lack of New Antibiotic Discovery 22
3.1.3 Non-human use of antimicrobials 23
3.1.4 Inadequate Surveillance and Limited Laboratory Antimicrobial
Susceptibility Testing 25
3.1.5 Increase in Human and Agricultural Use of Antibiotics 26
3.2 Genetics and Physiological Factors for Antibiotics Resistance of Bacterial Biofilm 28
3.2.1 Mutation and horizontal gene transfer 29
3.2.2 Role of enzymes in entry of antibiotics 30
3.2.3 Bacterial growth 33
3.2.4 Oxygen tension 33
3.2.5 Metabolic state 34
3.2.6 Environment 34
3.2.7 Persister formation 35
3.2.8 High cell density and quorum sensing (QS) 36
3.3 Challenges of Antibiotic Resistance 37
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Antimicrobial Control Strategies 39
4.1.1 Hygiene and Sanitation 39
4.1.2 Vaccination 39
4.1.3 Impact of Stakeholders in the Control of Antimicrobial Resistance 40
4.2 Alternative Treatment Opportunities 41
4.3 Probiotics as Living Drug 42
4.4 Measures to Reverse Resistance 44
4.5 Conclusion 45
REFERENCES 47
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