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UPRISING CHALLENGES OF ANTIBIOTICS RESISTANCE
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Table of contents
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Overview of Antibiotic Resistance 5
2.1.1 Antibiotic Drugs 8
2.2 Classification of Antibiotics 9
2.2.1 B- lactams 9
2.2.2 Sulfonamides 10
2.2.3 Trimethoprim 10
2.2.4 Macrolides 11
2.2.5 Tetracycline 12
2.2.6 Fluoroquinolone 12
2.2.7 Nitroimidazoles 13
2.2.8 Other antibiotic groups 13
2.3 Historical Perspectives of Resistance 14
2.4 Causes of Antibiotic Resistance 15
2.5 Antibiotics and Reduction of Microorganisms Diversity 16
2.6 Antibiotic effects on the human metagenome. 20
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Mechanisms of Bacterial Resistance 23
3.2 Factors that Mitigate Antibiotics Resistance 23
3.3 Genetics and Physiological Factors for Antibiotics Resistance of Bacterial
Biofilm 26
3.3.1 Mutation and horizontal gene transfer 26
3.3.2 Role of enzymes in entry of antibiotics 26
3.3.3 Bacterial growth 31
3.3.4 Oxygen tension 31
3.3.5 Metabolic state 32
3.3.6 Environment 32
3.3.7 Persister formation 33
3.3.8 High cell density and quorum sensing (QS) 34
3.4 Increase in Human and agricultural use of Antibiotics 35
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Antibiotics Associated Diseases 39
4.2 Probiotics as Living Drug 41
4.3 Probiotic Effects of Epigenetic Alterations 44
4.4 Challenges of Antibiotic Resistance 46
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Alternative Treatment Opportunities 48
5.2 Measures to Reverse Resistance 49
5.3 Future Trends 50
5.4 Conclusion 51
REFERENCES 52
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